Animal agriculture supplies meat, dairy, eggs, and fish to billions of people worldwide. Meeting this level of demand necessitates the use of large-scale, industrial production systems that raise significant concerns about animal welfare, environmental sustainability, and human health.
Each year, more than 70 billion animals are slaughtered globally for food, not including fish and other aquatic animals, whose lives are measured in tonnes (1). Global demand for animal products continues to rise, making industrialised farming systems the dominant model in most parts of the world (2).
While production methods vary, many common practices occur across countries and systems. Understanding these practices is essential for making informed, ethical decisions..
Common Practices in Livestock Farming
Across meat, dairy, and egg industries, animals are routinely subjected to physical interventions intended to maximise productivity and reduce injuries in confined environments.
In pig and cattle farming, castration is commonly performed to reduce aggression and improve meat quality. Although pain relief is increasingly encouraged, it is still frequently carried out without full anaesthesia, particularly in younger animals (3, 4).
Tail docking in pigs is widely used to prevent injuries caused by stress-related biting in the often filthy, overcrowded conditions. Similarly, chickens often undergo beak trimming to reduce feather pecking and cannibalism (5).b
Cattle and goats may be dehorned to reduce injury risks. This procedure is painful and is typically performed using hot irons or chemical agents, sometimes without adequate anasthetic (6). These procedures are responses to intensive environments rather than being necessary for animal welfare.
Poultry Farming
Chickens raised for meat and eggs represent the largest group of farmed land animals on the planet. Counting land animals only, we eat more chickens than any other animal.
Broiler Chickens
Most chickens raised for meat are housed in large indoor facilities containing thousands of birds. Selective breeding has produced birds that grow extremely rapidly, often reaching slaughter weight in just five to seven weeks. This accelerated growth is associated with high rates of physical disability, heart failure, and skeletal disorders (7).
Even in cage-free and free-range systems, stocking densities often remain high, and access to outdoor areas is often far more limited than consumers are led to believe.
Egg-Laying Hens
Laying hens are typically sourced from vast hatcheries. Because male chicks do not lay eggs and are not considered profitable enough for meat production, they are usually killed shortly after birth. Though some countries are moving away from this practice, this has most commonly been done through maceration in grinding machines while the birds are still conscious, or by gassing (8).
Hens are often kept under harsh artificial lighting to stimulate egg production. Many are housed in cages or high-density barns, which severely restrict natural behaviours such as dust bathing and foraging (9).
Beak trimming remains widespread to manage stress-related pecking and cannibalism. When egg production declines, hens are usually slaughtered (10). In this way, the egg and meat industries are inextricably linked.
Pig Farming
The vast majority of pigs worldwide are raised in intensive indoor systems, or factory farms.
Breeding sows are often confined in gestation crates for part or all of their pregnancies, and are not allowed to meaningfully interact with their children (11).
Piglets frequently undergo tail docking and castration. Pigs are typically slaughtered at four to six months of age, long before reaching natural maturity (12). Transport to slaughterhouses may involve long journeys under stressful conditions, contributing to injury and mortality.
Dairy Production
Milk production depends on repeated impregnation of female cows. Like all female mammals, cows do not lactate in signficiant volumes unless they are made pregnant.
Cows are commonly inseminated artificially and give birth approximately once per year. Calves are usually separated from their mothers within hours or days to allow maximum milk collection (13).
Research indicates that both cows and calves show behavioural signs of distress following separation, including vocalisation and reduced feeding (14). Female calves are typically raised for milk production, while male calves are often killed very young or sold for beef or veal, depending on market conditions (15).
After several years of intensive production, most dairy cows are slaughtered when milk yields decline.
Fishing and Aquaculture
Wild-Caught Fish
A growing body of evidence demonstrates that fish are capable of experiencing pain and stress (16). Many species also display advanced learning and social behaviours (17).
Most wild-caught fish die through suffocation or crushing during capture. These processes may last minutes or hours (18).
Commercial fishing is also associated with bycatch – the unintentional capture of non-target species such as dolphins, turtles, seabirds, and sharks. Bycatch remains a major driver of marine wildlife mortality (19).
Fish Farming
Aquaculture, or fish farming, now supplies over half of global seafood.
It is often thought of as a kinder alternative to fishing, yet fish farms often confine large numbers of fish in cages or ponds. High stocking densities can lead to disease, injury, and stress (20).
Many farmed fish are fed diets containing wild-caught fish, placing continued pressure on marine ecosystems. Although feed efficiency has improved in recent years, many systems still rely heavily on wild fish inputs and produce enormous waste (21).
Slaughter Practices
Most land animals are slaughtered in industrial facilities designed for high processing speeds.
Cattle, sheep, and pigs are typically stunned using captive bolt pistols or electrical methods before having their throats cut. Chickens are usually stunned in electrified water baths prior to slaughter (22).
Although stunning is usually mandated to reduce suffering, investigations have documented instances where animals are improperly stunned and remain conscious during processing, often due to high line speeds and worker fatigue (23).
Oversight varies widely between countries and facilities, inspections are usually announced in advance, and standards can be very difficult to enforce.
Non-Lethal Animal Products: Honey
Some animal products do not require direct killing, but still raise welfare concerns.
In commercial beekeeping, large quantities of honey are often removed and replaced with sugar syrups. Colonies may be transported long distances for crop pollination, increasing stress and mortality (24).
Smoke is commonly used to disorient bees during hive inspections. While not inherently harmful, misuse can cause injury (25).
In some operations, colonies are culled during winter to reduce feeding costs, although this practice is declining (26).
Why This Matters
Most consumers rarely see how animal products are produced. Production systems are complex, geographically distant, and intentionally hidden from public view. While welfare standards have improved in some regions, many practices associated with suffering remain widespread, particularly in high-volume systems.
This does not imply that all farmers act with indifference, most agricultural workers are ordinary people just trying to make a living. The unfortunate reality is that farmers work within economic and structural constraints that limit available alternatives, however well-intentioned they may be as an individual. The overall system prioritises efficiency and profit over animal welfare.
Choosing plant-based foods reduces participation in these systems and lowers demand for practices that cause harm. By boycotting animal agriculture industries, we choose to stop funding animal exploitation and the cruelty that is baked into the system.
For most of us , learning about these realities is uncomfortable, yet making informed decisions requires us understanding the consequences of our consumption. Reflecting on the harm that you have contributed to is never easy – it certainly wasn’t for me.
However, it is necessary for anyone who is serious about living a more ethical life.
Bibliography
- Faunalytics. Global Animal Slaughter Statistics.
https://faunalytics.org/global-animal-slaughter-statistics-and-charts/ - FAO. World Livestock: Transforming the Livestock Sector.
https://www.fao.org/3/i3460e/i3460e.pdf - AVMA. Castration of Piglets.
https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/animal-health-and-welfare/castration-piglets - AVMA. Castration of Cattle.
https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/animal-health-and-welfare/castration-cattle - Compassion in World Farming. Beak Trimming.
https://www.ciwf.org.uk/research/farm-animals/chickens/ - EFSA. Dehorning and Disbudding of Cattle.
https://www.efsa.europa.eu - EFSA. Welfare of Broiler Chickens.
https://www.efsa.europa.eu - RSPCA. Male Chicks in the Egg Industry.
https://kb.rspca.org.au - LayWel Project. Welfare of Laying Hens.
https://www.laywel.eu - RSPCA. Laying Hen Farming.
https://www.rspca.org.uk - Humane Society International. Gestation Crates.
https://www.hsi.org - FAO. Pig Production Systems.
https://www.fao.org - Dairy Australia. Calf Management.
https://www.dairyaustralia.com.au - ScienceDaily. Cow-Calf Separation Studies.
https://www.sciencedaily.com - RSPCA. Bobby Calves.
https://kb.rspca.org.au - Sneddon, L. (2015). Do Fish Feel Pain? Applied Animal Behaviour Science.
- Brown, C. (2015). Fish Intelligence. Animal Cognition.
- Humane Society. Fish Welfare.
https://www.humanesociety.org - WWF. Bycatch.
https://www.worldwildlife.org - FAO. Aquaculture Review.
https://www.fao.org - Naylor, R. et al. (2021). Aquaculture Feed. Nature.
- HSA. Electrical Stunning Parameters.
https://www.hsa.org.uk - Humane Slaughter Association Reports.
- FAO. Beekeeping and Pollination.
- Hobby Farms. Beekeeping Smoke.
https://www.hobbyfarms.com - European Commission. Beekeeping Practices.
https://eu-cap-network.ec.europa.eu/projects/best-practices-and-innovations-sustainable-beekeeping_en
“The message is overwhelming, both for publich health and environmental reasons: The more plants you can eat and the less meat and dairy you can consume, the better.”
–Tim Lang